Glazed Steatite Paste Beads in the Chalcolithic of the Levant : Long Distance Trade and Manufacturing Processes Daniella E. Bar-YoSEf MaYEr and Noami PoraT Introduction Beads, durable, portable and often brightly colored, are a universal characteristic of modern human behavior. ey are used as body and clothes decoration and considered to reflect personal and/or group awareness. Beads made of materials of biological origin (shell, bone, eggshell, ivory) were used by hunter-gatherers, but in the Levant the use of stone for producing ornamentation seems to correlate with the onset of the “Agricultural Revolution”. is major change in human economic basis is expressed in technological and social changes, and is further developed during the Chalcolithic, with the occurrence of the “secondary products revolution”. e latter is accompanied by a plethora of technical innovations and improvements expressed, for instance, in more elaborate pottery than in the preceding Neolithic period, metal production, and a wider range of personal decorations (e.g., trapezoidal pendants), and more. One example for a new artifact type that reflects the newest technology of the day was identified in the stone bead assemblage from the burial cave of Peqi’in. Fig. 1 : Location map. 112 DANieLLA e. BAR-YOseF MAYeR AND NOAMi PORAt e Chalcolithic burial cave discovered in 1995 at Peqi’in in the Upper Galilee (fig. 1) yielded a variety of objects and data that significantly contribute to the study of the Chalcolithic period. e cave was sealed since the Chalcolithic period and is extremely rich in finds of all types. e assemblage consists of dozens of ceramic ossuaries in a variety of types, shapes and models, some with outstanding facades and shapes. Jars, an ivory figurine, bronze and copper objects and basalt bowls typical of the Chalcolithic period, were all present at Peqi’in (Gal et al. 1997, 1999). An age of 6780 years B.P. was determined for the base of a stalagmite that sealed an ossuary, using the 230/234U disequilibrium method (Bar-Matthews et al. 2003). A series of calibrated C-14 dates date the site to the fifth millennium BCe (segal et al. 1998). Among the rich finds in the cave is an assemblage of over 500 beads. some were made of identifiable shells, but most of them (487), of various shapes and colors, were made of minerals and rocks, including carnelian, amethyst, limestone of various forms and colors, various green minerals including turquoise, volcanic rocks, and more. ese are currently being studied. e largest group of beads, 190 in number, is made of a white paste, sometimes glazed (fig. 2). ese white beads are scattered among eight different collecting units (loci) in the excavation. One locus (basket 3602, Loc. 307D) contained 83 beads, while another (basket 3490 Loc. 305) was a concentration of 33 beads in an elevated niche in the cave. e rest of the beads were in groups of between 1 and 17. We believe that although 190 beads may represent nothing more than a single necklace, their scatter indicates that they are, in fact, the surviving beads from several separate concentrations, based on context information provided by the excavators. some of the steatite beads were discovered 13-14 m distance apart and other beads made of shell, bone, carnelian and other raw materials were associated with them. Our initial naked-eye observation of the beads, that defined them as faience, turned out to be a mistake (Peltenburg 1971). similar beads, also referred to as faience, were found in the past at other Chalcolithic sites in the southern Levant, such as shiqmim (Levy et al. forthcoming), Neve Noy (eldar and Baumgarten 1985), Nahal Mishmar cave (Bar-Adon 1980) and the Nawamis sites of southern sinai (e.g. Bar-Yosef et al. 1977 ; Bar-Yosef Mayer 1999). Unfortunately none of these beads have been published in detail thus far, so their exact numbers and context cannot be discussed. However, from an unpublished preliminary report on the nawamis sites we learn that hundreds of beads were present, with concentrations of dozens of beads in different burial structures (N. AradAyalon and A. Goren, pers. comm., and see Bar-Yosef Mayer 1999 : tables 4.1-4.9). is is the first attempt at a comprehensive study of such beads that includes identifying the mineralogy of the beads as well as characterizing their typology and technology, in order to assess their importance in the context of the Chalcolithic society that either produced them or used them. Fig. 2 : Photograph of paste beads from Peqi’in. GLAzeD steAtite PAste BeADs iN tHe CHALCOLitHiC OF tHe LevANt 113 Description of the shape and size of the beads All the paste beads (but for one) are from the burial phase of the cave. ey are whitish, with occasionally a faint green hue on the outside layer. Based on comparison with beads in egypt, one should consider the possibility that their faint color may be the remains of an originally brighter blue-green glaze which weathered over time as a result of environmental conditions in the moist cave. e majority of these beads fall into Beck’s category of i.B.2.b (Beck 1928). is implies a rounded, short cylinder bead (its length not larger than the diameter of the bead), which has a plain perforation (the hole is parallel from one end to the other). We measured 78 out of the 190 beads. eir length is between 0.9 mm and 3.0 mm with an average of 1.71 mm. Outer diameter ranged from 2.3 to 7.0 mm with an average of 2.89 mm. inner diameter (or diameter of the hole) ranged from 0.5 to 1.7 mm with an average of 1.05 mm. analyses of the material e beads were first examined under x10-40 magnifications using a binocular microscope. Representative beads were then selected for further analyses. A scanning electron microscope (seM) equipped with an energy dispersive spectrometer (eDs) was used for defining the texture and structure of whole beads as well as for semi-quantitative chemical analyses of the different components of the beads. X-ray diffraction (XRD) of powdered beads was used to identify their mineralogy. Under the seM the beads contain silicon and magnesium with traces of copper and iron (fig. 3). e texture is of loosely packed elongated columnar crystals with no preferred orientation (fig. 4). in places the crystals are covered by aggregates of very fine powder of similar composition, perhaps cristobalite or the remains of the glaze. We interpret the loose, disordered texture to indicate that this is not a solid, carved stone, but rather a paste that was prepared from pulverized rock. e silicon and magnesium comprise the body of the bead while the copper and iron are most likely related to glaze. Fig. 3 : energy dispersive spectroscopy of an enstatite bead, giving semi-quantitative chemical composition. Ca – calcium, Cu – copper, Fe – iron, Mg – magnesium, O – oxygen, si – silicon. 114 DANieLLA e. BAR-YOseF MAYeR AND NOAMi PORAt Fig. 4 : scanning electron micro-photograph of a steatite bead. Note columnar crystals of enstatite and very fine crystals of perhaps cristobalite or remains of glaze. Fig. 5 : X-ray diffractogram of a steatite bead. e bead comprises the minerals enstatite (en) and cristobalite (cris). Al denotes diffractions from the aluminum sample holder. XRD analyses (fig. 5) revealed that the beads are made of enstatite (MgsiO3) and cristobalite (siO2). enstatite is a magnesium-bearing pyroxene, found in igneous and metamorphic rocks. Cristobalite is a high-temperature polymorph of quartz, formed when quartz is heated to a high temperature. Natural enstatite is a rare and hard-to-carve mineral (5-6 on the Mohs scale), and therefore we searched for other materials as a source for the beads. We propose that a more common magnesiumbearing mineral was used – talc. talc is a hydrated magnesium silicate of the composition Mg3si4O10(OH)2 that is characterized by extreme softness (registering 1-1.5 on the Mohs scale) and a soapy feel. it is found in metamorphic rocks such as serpentinite, and is also known as steatite or soapstone. Upon heating, talc decomposes and recrystallizes to give enstatite and a silica phase of GLAzeD steAtite PAste BeADs iN tHe CHALCOLitHiC OF tHe LevANt 115 Fig. 6 : si-Mg-OH ternary phase diagram showing the different minerals and compositions possible for any combinations of these 3 phases. Note that when talc loses water (by heating) it is transformed into enstatite with access siO2. cristobalite (fig. 6). e temperature required to transform steatite to enstatite may vary ; different temperatures are found in the literature ranging from “exceeding 1200oC” (Mackay 1937 : 12), 1100oC (Bouquillon et al. 1995), to 900oC (vidale 1987 : 113). Under geological environments of high pressure the presence of cristobalite indicates a temperature of at least 1470oC (Best 1982). e minute amount of copper in the beads that was detected in the seM could not be studied. several possible sources of copper exist in the southern Levant, namely southern sinai, timna and Wadi Feinan, but differentiating between copper derived from any of them is still a challenge. Also, very little glaze was preserved on the specimens studied and more analysis is required in the future to characterize the glaze. A recent examination of the Neve Noy beads showed the same characteristics as those of Peqi’in, but they exhibit better preservation of the glaze (fig. 7). Also, one bead that seemed to have no glaze was green inside (fig. 8). is suggests that it was glazed using the efflorescence method (Nicholson and Peltenburg 2000), by which the glazing material is mixed with the rest of the raw material and seeps towards the outside during the heating of the beads. it is also called “self-glazing”. Fig. 7 : Bead from Neve Noy with green glaze on outside surface as viewed under binocular microscope (x40). Bead height : ca. 2.5 mm. Dark areas are green. 116 DANieLLA e. BAR-YOseF MAYeR AND NOAMi PORAt Fig. 8 : Bead from Neve Noy with green glaze in center (dark) as viewed under binocular microscope (x40). Bead diameter : 4 mm. e origin of Steatite beads Origin of Raw Material talc is the primary mineral constituent of steatite and serpentinite stone. it appears in a variety of colors for which very crude geographical distinctions may be hazarded : white or grayish white are from egypt and the indus valley ; red, colored by iron oxides, is sometimes encountered in later prehistoric Mesopotamia ; dark green to black, with a greasy, soft feel is commonly encountered in syria and northern Mesopotamia for beads and seals (Aston et al. 2000 ; Moorey 1994). talc is also a well known raw material used in southeastern turkey and in Cyprus. it is not naturally present in the southern and central Levant. ree areas where similar beads have been discovered during roughly the same time period are the Badarian culture of Upper egypt, the Ubaid culture of Mesopotamia and the indus valley. ties between israel and egypt during this period are well established and because it is geographically the closest we discuss this area first. Parallels from Egypt Brunton and Caton-ompson (1928 : 82) describe the presence of beads made of blue glazed frit, as well as steatite, in the Predynastic graves at Badari attributed to the Badarian Culture (i.e., second half of 5th millennium BCe). Glazed steatite beads were also reported from Naqada (later Predynastic). Apparently the earlier beads were only glazed from the outside (see below), while the later ones were also glazed inside. e length of the Predynastic beads is 1.9-3.6 mm (Beck in Brunton and Caton-ompson 1928). e earlier beads, dating to the fifth millennium BCe, seem to be blue glazed, while the later ones, dating to the fourth millennium BCe, are green glazed (Finkenstaedt 1983). GLAzeD steAtite PAste BeADs iN tHe CHALCOLitHiC OF tHe LevANt 117 tite and Bimson (1989) analyzed glazed steatite beads from egypt. studying the chemical composition of two beads from a Badarian girdle they conclude that the beads are made of enstatite glazed with an alkali, possibly natron, with high concentration of copper oxide and magnesium oxide. Based on laboratory experiments, they conclude that the Badarian beads were glazed using the cementation method, whereby beads are buried in the glazing powder with a flux content. Upon firing, the powder fuses with the bead (Nicholson and Peltenburg 2000). is could have only been achieved using a fire hotter that 1000oC. is notion supports Beck’s claim, based only on optical observations, that the egyptian specimens of glazed steatite had a vitreous glaze applied to their surface and then fired. in a recent re-examination, tite confirmed that the Badarian beads (at the British Museum) are made of solid steatite, not from a paste (tite, pers. comm.), and are therefore different from the Peqi’in beads. Parallels from Mesopotamia Moorey stated that “e history of burnt steatite in Mesopotamia is obscured by the absence of any systematic study of beads from the region” (Moorey 1994 :169). We are aware, though, of the presence of “minute glazed steatite ring beads” at graves of the Ubaid period in Arpachiya (Mallowan 1935 :38) and of “chemically treated white steatite” at Nineveh 2, 3 and 4 (Beck 1934). Nineveh 2 and Arpachiya both date to the Ubaid period, i.e., the fifth millennium BCe. Yet another site is tepe Gawra, where “white paste beads are extremely common” from the Ubaid levels (tobler 1950 :88). Modern analyses on beads from Mesopotamia have not been conducted, thus we cannot reliably assess this area as being the source of the Peqi’in beads. However, the recent discovery of an Ubaid pottery sherd at tel tsaf reinforces connections to the north (Garfinkel et al. 2007). Parallels from the Indus Valley steatite as a raw material was first worked systematically in the Aceramic Neolithic of the indus valley ; it continued in the same tradition into the indus Culture of the Bronze Age in that region (Bouquillon et al. 1995 ; vidale 1995) and carries on to this day (vidale and shar 1990). Because of the abundance of talc in Baluchistan and the northwestern part of the indian subcontinent (Barthélemy de saizieu 2003 : fig. 2), not much discussion is dedicated to the geographic origin of the raw material, nor is there discussion of the possibility for identifying a precise source using chemical fingerprinting. it is worth mentioning here, that the Baluchistan sources of steatite are only about 200 km away from the Afghanistan sources of lapis lazuli. e study of steatite beads from Mehrgarh, Pakistan, is especially relevant to those of Peqi’in (Barthélemy de saizieu 2003 ; Barthélemy de saizieu and Bouquillon 1994, 1997, 2001 ; Bouquillon et al. 1995). it reveals that steatite as raw material was used for the production of beads beginning in the Aceramic Neolithic (Period i ; 7000-5800 BCe). it continued during the Ceramic Neolithic (Period ii ; 5800-4500 BCe) and into the Chalcolithic (Period iii ; 4500-3800 BCe), thus into the age in which it is found also in the Near east : the Badarian of egypt, the Ubaid culture of Mesopotamia, and the Chalcolithic of the Levant. ere are differences both in the mode of production and in the typology of the end product through the ages in Mehrgarh. During the Aceramic Neolithic steatite was used as simple cut stone and it was worked into ornaments of various shapes. During the Chalcolithic, heating and glazing steps were added to the production. However, there are also other differences between the various levels of Mehrgarh. One is that the relative frequency of steatite beads within the bead assemblage increases with time (9% in period ia ; 39% in Period ib ; 4% in period ii ; and 93% in Period iii, composed of 1936 beads). e other distinct change is in the average dimensions of the beads. in Period iB (Aceramic Neolithic) of Mehrgarh the outer diameter is 2.4 mm ; diameter of the hole is 1 mm ; length 1. 2mm, and in Period iii, the outer diameter of the beads is 3.8 mm, diameter of the hole is 0.9 mm and the length of the bead is 2.7 mm, strikingly similar to the beads in Peqi’in (Table 1). e shape is cylindrical, and the color is white with some residual blue glaze, as is also the case in Peqi’in. 118 DANieLLA e. BAR-YOseF MAYeR AND NOAMi PORAt table 1 : Average dimensions of steatite bead from different regions site Period Peqi’in Chalcolithic Mehrgarh iB* Aceramic Neolithic sample size 72 Mehgrarh iii* Chalcolithic Nawamis Chalcolithic 28 Outer diameter Hole diameter (mm) (mm) Length (mm) 2.89 (± 0.61) 1.05 (± 0.21) 1.71 (± 0.5) 2.4 1 1.2 3.8 0.9 2.7 2.45 (±0.37) 0.78(±0.17) 1.92(±0.4) * Based on Barthélemy de saizieu and Bouquillon, 1994. ere is a clear difference in composition between the glazing used in Mehrgarh, where the main components are diopside [a Ca bearing pyroxene ; Ca(Mg,Fe)si2O6] and tridymite (siO2, a polymorph of quartz), and that of the Badarian where the main component is forsterite (a Mg bearing olivine, Mg2siO4) (Bouquillon et al. 1995 :536). Both compositions indicate pyrotechnology that used talc or chlorite as a starting material. it should be noted that other studies in the indus valley and the indian sub-continent, especially the sites of Chanhu-Daro and zekhada, are also important in understanding and interpreting this industry (Mackay 1943 ; Hegde 1983 ; and see Bar-Yosef Mayer et al. 2004). Process of manufacturing Steatite beads All the studies to date, including our own, were based on visual inspection and chemical or mineralogical analyses of the beads. Undoubtedly experimentation is necessary in order to ascertain the processes involved. Combining our analyses of the Peqi’in beads with the production processes carried out by others, we propose that the following steps were used to produce the beads in Peqi’in. First a paste was prepared from powdered talc, water and perhaps an organic binding material and/or a flux containing alkalis (to lower the temperature of sintering) as well as copper powder for glazing. e paste was then shaped into long rods, probably along a thin core (possibly of straw), the tube was sliced to form beads and then fired at a high temperature. is firing hardened the paste and transformed the talc into enstatite and cristobalite. Because glazing as seen in the Neve Noy beads was apparently done by the efflorescence technique, the slicing must have taken place before firing (unlike our earlier suggestion that slicing was the last step [Bar-Yosef Mayer et al. 2004]). Discussion and Conclusions Currently, the studies on this topic by Barthélemy de saizieu and Bouquillon in the indus valley are the most detailed (Barthélemy de saizieu 2003 ; Barthélemy de saizieu and Bouquillon 1994, 1997, 2001 ; Bouquillon et al. 1995). eir study recognizes three synthetic materials for bead manufacturing beginning in the fifth millennium BCe : glazed steatite, steatite faience and quartz faience. e beads described above from Peqi’in are consistent with steatite faience, and they may also belong to a modified version of the latter that one should call “glazed steatite paste”. (We prefer paste to faience to avoid confusion with quartz faience that emerges in the Late Bronze Age). All of the material from Peqi’in is dated to the second half of the fifth millennium BCe. However, dates from other regions are not accurate enough to allow us to follow the dispersal of this innovation (if indeed it originates in a single region). several issues are of concern to us and need to be discussed: 1. e source of the raw material and its implications for long-distance contacts during this period; 2. the procedures involved in the production of these beads and their significance for Chalcolithic technology; and 3. the origin of the technology. GLAzeD steAtite PAste BeADs iN tHe CHALCOLitHiC OF tHe LevANt 119 e “glazed steatite paste” beads presented above are the first documentation of Chalcolithic pyrotechnology applied for a purpose other than metallurgy or ceramic heating. such use of pyrotechnology may in fact be part of an “experimental package” associated with the emergence of metal production (Hauptmann et al. 2001). is find is thus of prime importance for both technological innovations and long distance trade during this period. According to Barthélemy de saizieu and Bouquillon, since enstatite and cristobalite are present in the white beads of period iB (Aceramic Neolithic) in Mehrgarh, this means a fire of at least 1100 oC was used for production of beads, and it probably took place in a kiln, although thus far a kiln directly related to bead manufacturing has not been discovered. in the Near east, while we do not have a definite date for the earliest fire made for purposes other than just heating and cooking, the earliest evidence is the production of lime plaster from as early as the Natufian at Hayonim Cave and eynan (Bar-Yosef 1983 : 15 ; Kingery et al. 1988) and into the PPNB, as demonstrated at Yiftah’el and Kefar Ha-Horesh (Garfinkel 1987 ; Goring-Morris et al. 1994-5). temperatures required for the production of lime plaster are in the order of 800 oC. Firing of pottery vessels did not start until the Pottery Neolithic (sixth-fifth millennium BCe) and that was followed by the use of fire for copper metallurgy. Bouquillon et al. (1995 : 537) do suggest a correlation between these two major developments, but do not discuss it. Hegde (1983) points out that Harappan smiths are known to have cast copper, which melts at 1080 oC. us the artisans making beads would have been able to raise the temperature of the wood fire with the aid of forced air from a bellows in order to obtain the heat necessary for baking beads. Hauptmann et al. (2001) experimented with glazing temperatures and suggests 900-1100 oC is sufficient. it is impossible to determine whether or not the above-mentioned pyrotechnological activities are directly related to paste bead production, but they do indicate to us that the use of fire for diverse activities at variable temperatures was known and was possible during the Chalcolithic. However, since currently we do not have any evidence for on-site production of the glazed steatite beads either at Peqi’in or at any other Chalcolithic site in the southern Levant, and the raw material talc is not found in israel, we must assume that they were produced and obtained elsewhere. (e Neve Noy beads were found in the vicinity of a furnace but apparently are not related to it ; eldar and Baumgarten 1985 ; Y. Baumgarten, pers. comm. 2003). e mechanism of obtaining such objects is most likely some form of exchange, and it is premature to determine whether it is exchange between elites, down-the-line exchange, or any other form. Long distance contacts between Chalcolithic populations of the Levant are well documented (Gilead 1988 ; van den Brink and Levy 2002 and references). various stone and shell finds from the Nile valley are known. Copper of Anatolian origin was discovered at Nevatim and Abu Matar (Gilead and Fabian 2001) and an even more distant origin (Armenia or Azerbaijan) has been proposed for the copper of the Nahal Mishmar hoard (Key 1980). Lapis lazuli (commonly known to originate in Afghanistan) was found both at the Cave of the treasure in Nahal Mishmar and at Byblos (Bar-Adon 1980, Prag 1986). e detailed technological aspects of the production of the Peqi’in beads and their glazing are yet to be studied. However, it is rather striking that the dimensions of the beads in Peqi’in resembles most closely those of Period iB (Aceramic Neolithic) and the early Chalcolithic (4500-3800 BCe) of Mehrgarh in the indus valley (Table 1). e similarity, thus, is in the shape, size, color and raw material. it should be noted that, at this point, comprehensive information is available only from the indus valley sites and not from Mesopotamia or egypt. e steatite beads found at Peqi’in were the first of their kind to be identified as such in the Levant. subsequently we verified that similar beads from shiqmim, Neve Noy, Nahal Mishmar cave and the nawamis in southern sinai are made of the same raw material and with the same technology. e recent inference that apparently all these beads were glazed and green cause us to believe that the initial purpose of this innovation was to serve as replacements for, or additions to, green stone beads that were in use in previous periods (e.g., Bar-Yosef Mayer and Porat 2008 ; Wheeler 1983). is suggests that green stones that became abundant during the Neolithic were more desirable during the Chalcolithic. e underlying reasons, that most likely are related to control over raw material resources 120 DANieLLA e. BAR-YOseF MAYeR AND NOAMi PORAt and that may be related to shifts in social structures, the onset of copper production and various other processes that characterize the Chalcolithic period are beyond the scope of this paper. Barthélemy de saizieu and Bouquillon see differences in manufacturing procedures between the egyptian and indus specimens, and therefore, a parallel development of steatite-based beads in both egypt and the indus valley should also be considered. to date, the only evidence for production centers is in the indus valley, and therefore we tend to assume that this is where both the raw material and the end product originated. But this question of the origin and dispersal of the beads and the technology is far from being resolved. if indeed their source is in the indus valley, they can clarify the route in which various exchange items traveled from the indus valley to Mesopotamia, onward from there through the Levant and into egypt. e thorough investigation of steatite beads in the indus valley over the last decade by Barthélemy de saizieu and Bouquillon, and by vidale, is thus far unparalleled in other areas. similar investigations into the character of the beads found outside that area will enable us to interpret the degree of relations between the indus valley, Mesopotamia, the Levant, and egypt. Precise and accurate dating of 5th and 4th millennium sites in these regions may help to locate the area in which this technology originated and its dispersal to the other regions. Another interesting aspect of these beads is the discovery of steatite beads mainly in funerary contexts in all of these regions. eir value may have thus gone beyond mere decoration : they may have had a symbolic value. aCkNowLEDGEMENTS We wish to thank valentine Roux and steven Rosen for inviting us to participate in the workshop on techniques and People. anks to zvi Gal, Dina shalem, Howard smithline, Yaacov Baumgarten, tom Levy and Avner Goren for allowing us to examine the beads from their excavations. anks to Mikki sebbane and Hava Katz from the israel Antiquities Authority for facilitating access to the Neve Noy beads. rEfErENCES Aston, B. G., Harrell, J. A., and shaw, i. 2000 stone. in P. t. Nicholson and i. shaw, eds., Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press) : 5-77. Bar-Adon, P. 1980 e Cave of the Treasure. Jerusalem : israel exploration society. 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